Fig. 1

The four hypotheses proposed in our earlier study [1]. Hypothesis (i) proposes that when the edge distance is sufficient, both in-plane failure and out-of-plane failure can occur. Hypothesis (ii) proposes that the stress-spreading range is larger under maximum stress than under the yield stress. Hypothesis (iii) proposes that the stress-spreading range (normalized by the dowel diameter) reduces with increasing dowel diameter. Hypothesis (iv) proposes that the stress generated by the embedment pressure preferentially spreads vertically and horizontally along the strong and weak-axis specifications, respectively